Napoleon Bonaparte , (1769 - 1821)
Napoleon Bonaparte (born August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica, died May 5, 1821 on the island St. Helena) was general, First Consul, then Emperor of the French. He was a conqueror of continental Europe.

Subject during his lifetime as a black legend of a golden legend, he gained notoriety for its now universal military and political genius, but also for his authoritarian regime, and his incessant campaigns costly in lives, resulted by heavy defeat in Spain, Russia and Waterloo, and his death in exile on St. Helena in the custody of the English.

General of the French Revolution to 24 years, it accumulates the spectacular victories in Italy and during the Egyptian campaign, and took power by coup d'état of 18 Brumaire Year VIII (November 9, 1799).

He heads the France from the end of 1799 and is the first First Consul Nov. 10, 1799 to May 18, 1804 and then Emperor of the French, under the name Napoleon I from May 18, 1804 to April 11, 1814 and from March 20 to June 22, 1815. He reorganized and lasting reform state and society. It covers the French territory to full length with about 130 departments, transforming Rome, Hamburg and Amsterdam in towns of French departments. He is also President of the Italian Republic from 1802 to 1805, then King of Italy March 17, 1805 to April 11, 1814, but the mediator of the Swiss Confederation from 1803 to 1813 and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine from 1806 to 1813. He conquered and ruled most of continental Europe and puts his family on the thrones of several European kingdoms: that of Joseph of Naples and Spain, that of Westphalia Jérôme, Louis Holland and that of his in-law Joachim Murat in Naples. It also creates a Grand Duchy of Warsaw, not daring to formally restore Polish independence, and submit to the influence of the defeated powers such as Prussia and Austria.

Napoleon tries to put an end to his advantage in the series of wars waged by European monarchies against France since 1792. He led the men of the Grand Army, which his followers "veterans" of the Nile and Andalusia to the city of Moscow. As noted by the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, no army had gone as far from the Vikings or Mongols. Despite many initial victories against various coalitions assembled and financed by Great Britain (now the United Kingdom in 1801), the imperial epic ends in 1815 with the defeat of Waterloo.

Few men have led many conflicting passions that Napoleon Bonaparte. In the words of the historian Steven Englund, "the tone (...) is best to speak of Napoleon would (...) an admiration bordering on astonishment and a constant disapproval bordering on sadness. "

A romantic tradition that Napoleon's early archetype of the great man called to upset the world. Élie Faure, in his book that inspired Napoleon Abel Gance, compared to a prophet of modern times. Other authors like Victor Hugo's are defeated St. Helena the modern Prometheus. The shadow of "Napoleon the Great" hangs over many works of Balzac, Stendhal, Musset, but also of Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and many others.







Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio in Corsica, August 15, 1769 with the name Napoleone di Buonaparte baptism (note of July 21, 1771, but on his marriage with Josephine de Beauharnais he signed Napoleone Buonaparte), one year after the Treaty of Versailles by which Genoa cedes the island to France (1768). Born into a family belonging to the nobility of the Italian-Corsican whose presence on the island is documented since the sixteenth century [2] (House of Bonaparte from Tuscany), it is the fourth child (second child survivors ) Carlo Maria Buonaparte, a lawyer at the Higher Council of the island, and Maria Letizia Ramolino. His first name Napoleone (or according to the spelling Nabulione corse. [3]) is given in memory of a dead uncle in Corte in 1767 [4].



In 1777, Charles Bonaparte, representing the nobility, is part of the deputation that the General Assembly of the States of Corsica sent to Versailles to King Louis XVI. On this occasion, the Earl of Marbeuf, governor of the island, procures, with the Minister of War Prince Montbarrey a scholarship to enter the second son of Charles at the military academy, his older brother Joseph was intended to follow an ecclesiastical career [5].

On 1 January 1779, Charles Bonaparte brought his two temporarily son Joseph and Napoleon at the College of Autun. Napoleon stayed there three months, the time for his father to take the steps to be admitted to military school, for it to provide proof of his nobility and four degrees of tenure for the award of the King [6] . The case was examined by the judge of arms Antoine-Marie d'Hozier de Serigny [7]. Charles Bonaparte had provided evidence of nobility of the family, Napoleon was approved by the Ministry of War to enter the military college of Tiron, but due to defections, he finally admitted to the Royal Military School of Brienne-le -Château (Dawn) [7].

Napoleon between May 15, 1779 in seventh grade [8]. This is one of twelve colleges in France catering for children of the gentry. It will remain there five years. Considered a good student, particularly gifted in mathematics, Bonaparte was not well liked by his classmates because of his particular admiration for Pascal Paoli [9]. It already shows a propensity to the art of command, organizing military games that he led. A battle of snowballs, it would have led one winter, is part of the legend [10]. His brother Joseph, who dropped its plans to enter the seminary, studied law, Lucien entered the seminary in Aix-en-Provence and sisters are educated by Madame Campan.

His father visited him June 21, 1784 [11]. On 22 September the same year, the sub-inspector of schools-Antoine-Marie Reynaud Serapion Mountains puts students cadets de Brienne entrance exam to the Ecole Militaire in Paris, where after a year of study it may be assigned to a regiment of artillery, engineering, or naval [12]. Napoleon is deemed fit to enter and four of his classmates. He left school Oct. 17 and arrived five days later in Paris where he joined the company of gentlemen cadets [13]. On February 24, 1785, Charles Bonaparte died of stomach cancer, the role of head of the family falls to the elder Joseph, Napoleon, but the judge of a character too weak to lead the family [14]. In September, he passed the final examination of the school to include an artillery regiment, when asked by the mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace. It received second lieutenant, (42 of 58) for the consideration of the artillery, and ordered to reach the destination he has chosen, the artillery regiment of La Fere then in garrison at Valence [ 15].

He left Paris to Valencia October 30, 1785. On September 15, 1786, seven years and nine months after his departure, he is the foot on the island of Corsica on the occasion of his leave period. On 1 June 1788, he sailed to join his regiment in garrison at La Fere Auxonne and learn his trade as an artilleryman. In his spare time he works diligently. His many lectures, he accompanies Notes [16] show the direction in which he conducted his studies and topics that have attracted particular. He left Auxonne to leave half of early September 1789. The end of her leave him back in the city auxonnaise 11 or February 12, 1791 he finally leaves June 14, 1791.




When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Lieutenant Bonaparte 19. It has been present for 15 June 1788 the regiment of La Fere, then at the Royal School of Artillery Auxonne led by Field Marshal Baron, Jean-Pierre du Teil. It entrusted the suppression of the first local riot that broke out July 19, 1789.

This occasionally in Paris, the young officer is a spectator of the invasion of the Tuileries by the people June 20, 1792 and would then expressed his contempt for the weakness of Louis XVI. The latter signs a few days later his master, one of his last public acts.

Napoleon returns to repeatedly in Corsica, where clan warfare had resumed, the Paolist supporting the monarchy in the English Revolution and Bonaparte. Napoleon was elected lieutenant-colonel of the National Guard in March 1792, tearing force the agreement of the Government Commissioner. In that position as second in command of the battalion Quenza Bonaparte that he made his debut in February 1793, participating at the head of the artillery in the expedition of La Maddalena. Despite the effectiveness and determination of Napoleon, the operation commanded by Colonna Cesari, near Paoli, is a dismal failure. This event and the execution of the king in January 1793 sparked the division with Paolist, causing a revolt of independence.

Disagreements between Paoli and Napoleon are growing and following a letter from Lucien Bonaparte to the Convention to denounce Paoli, Napoleon's family, whose house was sacked, was forced to hastily leave the island to Toulon , June 10, 1793. Shortly after the arrival of Bonaparte in the (new) department of Var, the region rebelled against the Convention and Toulon is delivered to the British by the people revolted.

Artillery captain, Napoleon is sent in the fall of 1793 and obtained at the request of the commissioners Augustin Robespierre and his fellow Salicetti, the command of the artillery with the rank of battalion chief. There he met young officers as Marmont, Junot or Victor. The plan he submitted to General Dugommier allows the recovery of the city royalists and British troops on December 18. Orders contribute to force the British fleet to leave the harbor of Toulon and to deprive the insurgents of valuable support. It is made Brigadier General on December 22. After this victory, he served in Italy.

His friendships with the Jacobins to his being briefly arrested after the fall of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor Year II (July 27, 1794).



Released, he refuses to be affected in the Vendée and wanders in Paris one time without effective command and then asks the Barras 13 Vendémiaire IV suppress the royalist insurrection against the National Convention. At that time, Bonaparte has under him a young officer, Joachim Murat, his future brother in law. The latter plays a key role in transferring long guns from the Sablon essential to the edge of the Tuileries. The cannonade of St. Roch - when bullets were replaced by the shrapnel more "efficient" - dispersed the royalist forces killing many ...

A few days later, Bonaparte was promoted to major general and appointed commander of the Army of the Interior, succeeding Barras who became one of the five Board members.

Artillery officer by training, he is innovative about this time in the use of artillery (gun Gribeauval) as a mobile force to support infantry attacks.

It is to Josephine de Beauharnais, friend and former mistress of Barras, he just married in early 1796, his promotion to head of the small army of Italy, known in principle to open a simple front diversion. He knows how to motivate his men, recognized the ground in 1793-94, and is an exceptional campaign, which is studied in all schools of war. He beat four separate general Piedmontese and Austrians (including Colli, Von Beaulieu and Argenteau to Millesimo, Montenotte) and sign the armistice of Cherasco with the first kingdom. In a second phase, it beats a new Austrian army sent reinforcements and controlled by Sebottendorf in Lodi and Beaulieu Borghetto, which gives it the conquest of Milan.

In a third phase organized around the siege of Mantua, he defeated two new Austrian army commanded by Quasdanovich and Wurmser in seven battles, including Castiglione, Roveredo. Finally, the reinforcements ordered by Alvinczy were again beaten at the bridge of Arcola and Rivoli. While organizing the sister republics of Italy in the model of the French Republic, he walks over Austria and the only sign peace preliminaries of Leoben. In little over a year, he defeated five Austrian armies, frequently one against two, and only decides the fate of the war, the French armies of the Rhine being beaten by the Austrians who have weakened their forces on this front to send reinforcements in Italy. The streets of Paris where he lives is famous rue de la Victoire.



On his return from Italy in December 1797, Bonaparte was welcomed as a hero by the Management Board, which organizes a ceremony to celebrate the peace of Campo Formio. He was appointed member of the Institute in the mathematics classroom. In February 1798, the Executive submits to Bonaparte the idea of ​​an invasion of England. It inspects the French coast to Boulogne, Calais and Dunkirk, to the project. His popularity with the French is becoming more important. On February 23, 1798, the government abandoned the plan to invade England on the advice of Bonaparte, who, himself influenced by Talleyrand, then persuade the Executive to bring the war in Egypt, where he can cut in front of India to Britain. On February 24, 1798, the report is submitted to Barras; March 5, worried about the popularity of Bonaparte, the Management Board responsibility for leading the expedition to Egypt, also with the idea to get rid of.

In April 1798 is created the army of the East, under the orders of Bonaparte. Scientists form the Institute of Egypt with him. It is also accompanied by Generals Kleber, Desaix, Murat, Lannes, Davout and Caffarelli.

On May 19, 1798, Bonaparte left Toulon with the bulk of the French fleet and managed to escape the pursuit of the British fleet by Nelson. But there was perhaps a ruse to pass the English the French fleet to better crush later. Incidentally, the French seized Malta, 10-11 June 1798, to ensure further communication with the metropolis. On June 19, 1798, after leaving a garrison of 3,000 men there, the fleet set sail for Alexandria, she reached the first in July 1798. After a short resistance, the city is taken the next day.

Bonaparte left 3000 men in Alexandria and the Nile back to Cairo. The first real fight of the Egyptian campaign took place in July 13, 1798 Chebreïs where riders Mamelukes were defeated, with the artillery of the army of the East. On July 21, 1798 at the Battle of the Pyramids of Giza, Bonaparte defeated again Mamluk army. On July 24, 1798, Bonaparte and his army entered triumphantly in Cairo. 1 and 2 August 1798, the French fleet was almost entirely destroyed by vessels of Aboukir Nelson. Now the British are masters of the Mediterranean and Bonaparte was a prisoner of his conquest. Following this defeat, the Turks, September 9, 1798, declared war on France. It must be remembered that at that time Egypt is part of the Ottoman Empire, like most of the Middle East.

While he decided to make Egypt a real state capable of self-sufficient, Bonaparte sent General Desaix continue until Murad Bey in Upper Egypt, thus completing the submission of the country. Driven by the British and the Turks, the Mamluks survivors working population of Cairo, who rebels October 21, 1798 against the French. This revolt was ruthlessly suppressed by the troops. Calm returns and Bonaparte restored the situation by declaring a general amnesty last, not without having cut off many heads paraded to the crowd and guns terrorized the Great Mosque in Cairo.

In February 1799, Napoleon moves to Syria to confront the Ottoman troops that the Sultan had sent to attack the French in Egypt. On February 10, 1799, Bonaparte left Cairo with his army and defeated the Turks in the fighting in El-Arish and Gaza. On March 7, 1799, the city of Jaffa was taken and plundered by the French.

Napoleon ordered the execution of some 2,500 Turkish prisoners who were shot or slaughtered for lack of ammunition [17]. In this massacre, he hopes to impress his opponents.

It was at that time that the plague appears in the French ranks. Napoleon was in favor of euthanasia for the dying soldiers with large doses of opium (used to relieve pain), but his doctor Desgenettes opposed vigorously.

On March 19, 1799, Bonaparte laid siege to St. Jean d'Acre. On April 13, 1799, riders Junot rout the Ottoman cavalry at the Battle of Nazareth, and April 16, 1799, Bonaparte and Kleber crush the Turkish army relief sent by the Sultan to release the head of St. John of Acre at the Battle of Mount Tabor. Although victorious in this battle, April 16, 1799, the expedition to Syria will be decimated by the plague and then stopped at Acre.

Returning to Acre, Bonaparte will try in vain from April 24 to May 10, 1799, to take the city. On May 17, 1799, Bonaparte decided to abandon the siege and returned to Egypt. On June 14, 1799, he arrived in Cairo and in a turnaround, beating the Turks July 25, 1799 to the land battle of Aboukir.

The position of the Executive appeared to him in favor of a coup, Bonaparte, who has only weakened army, having lost its navy, relinquished command of the army of Egypt Jean-Baptiste Kléber.



He returned to France, August 23, 1799, on the sly, on board the frigate Muiron, leaving an army to General Kleber and less sick. He arrived in Saint-Raphaël October 9, 1799 after having miraculously escaped the British squadrons during the 47 days of the crossing.

On the road that leads him to Paris, he was acclaimed by the people. Jean-Baptiste Kléber proved an excellent administrator and March 20, 1800, performs the feat of defeating the Turks at the battle of Heliopolis. This victory allowed France to keep Egypt, but Kléber was assassinated, June 14, 1800 in Cairo, the day Napoleon narrowly wins the battle of Marengo in Italy, thanks to the heroic charge of Desaix, who is killed of the assault.

Kleber's successor, General Menou, August 31, 1801 surrendered to Turkish forces after the British lost 13,500 men, mainly victims of epidemics during the peace negotiations. The remaining French soldiers were repatriated on British ships to France.





Arrived in the capital, General meets with Talleyrand, politician and connoisseur of experience of the forces involved

The pattern of the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) provides the following: Bonaparte will have the command of the army to maintain order in Paris and in the assemblies. There are plans to move the assemblies to the castle of Saint-Cloud on the grounds of a Jacobean risk. Since 1789, the assemblies are still under the threat of the Parisian population.

Most events take place on 19 Brumaire in Saint-Cloud. The revisionists had considered a mass resignation of five directors, but the meetings were delayed because the idea is not unanimity Bonaparte becomes impatient and decides to intervene.

It is an awkward speech before the Council of Five Hundred, booed speeches by MPs who accuse him of wanting to establish the dictatorship. Bonaparte was then forced to leave the meeting. But he quickly took control of the situation with the help of his brother Lucien who chairs the Five Hundred. Lucien Napoleon prevents or questioned by MPs who want to vote to put off-the-law Bonaparte. Lucien delay the vote and will look Murat, who comes with the troupe and puts order in the assemblies, saying that some members wanted to stab Bonaparte to justify a military intervention.

Representations of members leaving through the windows and trying to stab Napoleon are widespread. Bonaparte is in fact the strong man of the situation, who tipped a parliamentary coup in a military coup.
But Bonaparte remains committed to the legal forms and, on the evening of 19 Brumaire, members remain in St. Cloud to vote the decision to appoint two committees to prepare a new constitution. Then there is a willingness to support the plan on voting representatives of the people.

The 20 Brumaire, the three Consuls are appointed Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos. This is the beginning of the Consulate. Roger Ducos is strongly committed to Bonaparte, Sieyes while he does not resign itself to relinquish power to Bonaparte himself. He intends to play a role in the government of the Consulate. To counteract his bulky colleague Bonaparte, multiplied provocations, to maintain ministerial enemies Sieyes providing external relations to that of Talleyrand and Fouche Police.

The drafting of the Constitution was officially entrusted to two legislative committees formed of members of the Five Hundred and the Ancients. But in fact, that Sieyes will propose a project. On examination, the project will prove too complex or unrealistic. Indeed, it provides for the establishment of a democratic government based on a strong legislative branch represented by three rooms. The Executive will, in turn, reduced to a purely honorary judges for life and two consuls limited functions.

Bonaparte takes advantage of the weaknesses of the plan to impose its own project and get rid of his troublesome rival. From 4 to 13 December 1799, he meets and the two commissions into his office to prepare the text of the new constitution.

The Constitution of Year VIII select committee was adopted in December 13, 1799. It draws in part on the project Sieyes, but integrates the political ideas of Napoleon Bonaparte, especially on the executive. Sieyes, itself, will be responsible for appointing three consuls of the Republic: Bonaparte as First Consul, and Jean-Jacques-Regis de Cambaceres and Charles-François Lebrun, 2nd and 3rd as consuls of the Republic. Sieyes, meanwhile, will be relegated to the position of President of the Senate.

    "When I made the head of affairs, France was in the same condition as Rome, when told that a dictator was needed to save the Republic. "
        - Bonaparte



The Constitution of Year VIII comes into force on December 25, 1799. Bonaparte established the Constitution under the guise of democracy, but organizes autocratic power, all the evolutions of the system will only accentuate the autocratic nature of power.

Legislative power is divided into three assemblies (tricamérisme):

    Tribunate discusses the laws without voting
    the Legislature (or "dumb Corps") adopt or reject laws
    the Senate Curator is responsible for verifying that the law complies with the constitution.

The preparation of the law belongs to the executive, through the State Council, responsible for drafting legislation.

The authority operates in an authoritarian manner, the methods of semi-direct democracy (somewhat fictional) are carefully organized and controlled. The consul corrects itself if the results are not satisfactory. The Consulate is a form of enlightened despotism.



In 1800, Bonaparte attacked and defeated Austria again. Defeated by Napoleon at Marengo and Hohenlinden by Moreau, the Austrians to sign the Treaty of Luneville February 9, 1801, causing the British to sign the Peace of Amiens March 25, 1802 (4 germinal an X, countersigned two days later). If his power was fragile in the wake of Brumaire, the victory of Marengo and its aftermath greatly strengthen the position of Bonaparte.

On December 24, 1800, an "infernal machine" (bomb) is waiting rue Saint-Nicaise. The driver of the First Consul going at full gallop. The bomb exploded late and only the vehicle's windows are blown. On site, however, is the carnage. There are 22 dead and hundreds injured. Fouche, Minister of Police, succeeded in proving that the attack was the work of the royalists, while Bonaparte is confident to deal with the Jacobins. The execution of the Duc d'Enghien will be a consequence.

In 1802, Bonaparte calls the ashes of Marshal Turenne is transferred to the Invalides. It is indeed a great admirer of Turenne, he successfully take over the strategy of surprise attack (Battle of Turckheim, 1675) in his campaigns from 1805 to 1812.

That same year, Bonaparte set in motion his grand design for America. This is for him, enjoying the peace of Amiens allows the free movement of the French fleet in the Atlantic, to develop Louisiana, the vast territory that stretches along the right bank of the Mississippi and back to right to France since the signing of the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800.

For this it needs a secure base of operations. The colony of Santo Domingo is for you. This bridgehead of France in the New World, it may take up gently to New Orleans without rushing the young American state that would expand to the West permanently confined to Mississippi.

But in Saint-Domingue, Toussaint Louverture is a formidable obstacle to this plan. General Black is Chief Executive of the settlement on behalf of France since 1797 and is suspected of collusion with the United States of America with which, in defiance of the principle of exclusive, open trade. In fact, last year he has voted by large planters, its objective allies, a separatist constitution that made him governor general for life and he had the audacity to send to France for a simple ratification, a after the fact.

This act of open rebellion of a warlord deemed invincible and firmly attached to his island is timely to justify the importance of the forces committed to shipping in the making. And the reason of state, cold and imperious, also justifies the restoration of slavery in the colonies of the New World because it goes without saying that French Louisiana has to develop quickly to get ahead of English and American, it can not be done without the slave labor that worked so well known to be exploited in Santo Domingo.

That is why two fleets set sail to the Caribbean, Leclerc, own brother of Napoleon, to Santo Domingo with 20 000 men and Richepanse to Guadeloupe with 3400 men.

These heads are equipped with secret instructions very explicit written by the hand of Bonaparte. They must take military control of the two colonies and disarm the native officers before restoring slavery. Proclamations are ready, in French and Creole, which aim to reassure the people indigenous to the personal attachment to freedom of Bonaparte. This plethora of precautions demonstrates that he understood that the success or failure would depend on the secret and the facts proved him right.

After fierce resistance of three months, the old Toussaint, betrayed by his generals ably undertaken by Leclerc, laid down his arms and was captured and deported to France where he died a few months later. Leclerc could move to the second phase of the plan and disarm the officers of color but Richepance in Guadeloupe had restored slavery immediately and the news of this betrayal of the word of the First Consul swung Santo Domingo in the insurgency.

Leclerc's army weakened by an epidemic of yellow fever, back everywhere. Leclerc get close to 20,000 men as reinforcements, but yellow fever is inexorably down one third of Europeans that affect these shores and Leclerc himself succumbed. The remnants of his army will be destroyed by the soldiers of Jean-Jacques Dessalines proclaimed the independence of which the former colony in the Indian name of Haiti.

But the time of French America is already past. Peace with England was broken and the Atlantic has returned to a hostile sea. Tired, in 1803, Bonaparte sold Louisiana to the United States.

Much later, in St. Helena, Napoleon said "I should have let Toussaint lead Santo Domingo," wishful thinking to evade the stigma of slavery which taints his legacy but the reality facing the American Dream Bonaparte, Toussaint and free blacks were not the weight.

After Bonaparte had extended its influence to Switzerland (which implements the current decentralized institutions) and Germany, a dispute over Malta to the British serves as a pretext to declare war again with France in 1803 and to support the royalist opposition to Bonaparte. It reacts: the idea of ​​an invasion from the United Kingdom is emerging, and to bring to reason the royalists who may conspire in the shadows, the First Consul did run the Duc d'Enghien, Bourbon prince. The execution taking place in Vincennes after a show trial, does not cause further protests as the United Kingdom, Russia and Austria who stick to a few timid reproach. But it is this act which bases the reputation of "Robespierre on horseback" in Napoleon (St. Helena, Napoleon will take this action, despite the likely involvement of Talleyrand). After the pledge to the Republicans, to the extent that the First Consul repeats the crime of regicide, it was crowned emperor December 2, 1804.

Strictly speaking, the Empire is born at the request of the Senate. Steven Englund agrees with the view that it was initially to protect the Republic. Consulate shot, the order would have collapsed with him. Emperor, it became an institution, sealing the sustainability of republican values. He could die hereditary title was supposed to protect the land of turmoil and loss of revolutionary gains (with, first, equality, freedom ahead). Thus the imperial coins are, without hypocrisy, the word "Emperor Napoleon - French Republic."

As a result only the Empire "republican", protecting the revolutionary gains, will be "imperialist".





The imperial coronation, unique event in the history of France represented in the painting by Jacques-Louis David, The Coronation of Napoleon, is heavily loaded with symbolism. The transition from Republic to Empire requires the creation of imperial arms and the creation of symbolic objects for establishing a tradition that was previously unknown. Napoleon, who wants to bring people together, decided to combine the symbols of his reign the images that were previously represented France, and the strong powers in Europe.

The eagle was chosen in reference to the Roman eagles, carried by the legions, but it is also the symbol of Charlemagne, the eagle displayed. This is one read error that will give the symbol of the French Empire an eagle with outstretched wings: in heraldry, outspread said birds and chimeric animals represented with outstretched wings (a two-headed eagle with wings deployed is a good example). The red color of the imperial mantle is a direct reference to the purple of the Roman imperium. Napoleon arises thus heir to the Roman Empire and Charlemagne.

The bees are supposed to recall the Merovingians (pin representing have been found in tombs from this period), and their arrangement on the arms and the imperial mantle must remember the lilies of the Capetians. The hand of justice used by the Capetian royal coronations at, he must show he is the heir of their power. Napoleon wants to show he is the founder of the "Fourth Dynasty", that of Bonaparte, after the Merovingians, the Carolingians, and Capetian.

Other symbols used during the coronation are responsible for moral values. Napoleon and it is a time of Charlemagne the globe, he wears the crown of the same emperor (both of which have been fabricated before the coronation). His sword and scepter are so-called "Charlemagne": they were actually used for centuries by the Valois and the Bourbons during their coronation.



The self-coronation of Napoleon, under the eyes of the Pope, who appears to reduce the Pope Pius VII to bless the coronation of the French head of state, is also an opportunity to reconsider the relations between France and the papacy.

The signing of the Concordat by the First Consul in 1801 recognizes Catholicism as the religion of "the majority of French people", not as the state religion. The priests are now receiving treatment from the state. To show his power, Napoleon will not be crowned in Rome, as before Charlemagne and the Germanic emperors (until the fifteenth century), the Pope that we will come to Paris.

Napoleon welcomes disrespectfully in the forest of Fontainebleau, on horseback and dressed in hunting, wanting to believe in the chance of the match. Napoleon still offend the Pope, taking her hand the crown of the Empress, but especially by crowning himself. In this way, he asserts the primacy of politics (and therefore secular) on the religious.

The reconciliation between Napoleon and the Church is the result of a political calculation on the part of the Emperor. Beyond the moral value may have had a religious sacrament in the eyes of Catholics, the symbolic value of a papal coronation coronation of recalling the Germanic emperors, Napoleon stands on a par or even above kings Europe as the successor of Charlemagne and the emperors of ancient Rome. The presence at the coronation of Pope gives a moral and legitimate supplement to the Empire.

This is simply the result of a revolution is a divine coronation as the other European rulers, but none of the sovereigns of Europe can match. Napoleon on the same level as the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire than before and the only emperor in Europe. Francis II had also understood because the proclamation of the French Empire, he decreed that Austria, while archduchy, also became an Empire.

The presence of the Pope is more of a message to the Catholic European countries a tribute from Napoleon.

Napoleon, too insensitive to the plight of the Vicar of Christ, do not hesitate to keep a prisoner at Fontainebleau. The idea of ​​asserting the power of France in the spiritual realm, it will consider transferring the residence of the pope from Rome to Paris, before abandoning this idea.



In 1804, the time is not yet the vast conquests, and has long been convinced that the only way to achieve lasting peace is to neutralize the United Kingdom, Napoleon is developing, with Admiral Latouche- Treville (who died before he could execute) a plan for the invasion of the United Kingdom. It fails permanently at the Battle of Trafalgar, where the Franco-Spanish fleet commanded by Admiral Villeneuve was destroyed by Admiral Nelson. The United Kingdom drew the domination of the seas for the next century.

In 1805, the Third Coalition was formed against Napoleon in Europe. The Emperor, who, in Boulogne, oversaw the preparations for the invasion of the United Kingdom is facing a sudden war, and at the other end of Europe. He leads an immediate offensive, carrying the Great Army in Austria at a rapid pace, and ensures a brilliant victory against Austria and Russia at the battle of Austerlitz, called "Battle of Three Emperors".

In 1806, Prussia, causes a new conflict. Napoleon's campaign is impressive for speed: "Soul of the World" (Hegel): it scans the Prussian army at the battle of Jena (coupled with the victory at Auerstadt where Davout with 30,000 men, Davout defeated the 63,500 Prussians that assail). The following year, Napoleon through Poland, won a victory over the Russians at Friedland, and finally signed at Tilsit, in the middle of the Niemen, in a setting designed to strike the imagination, a treaty with the Tsar Alexander I dividing Europe between the two powers.

This man trained in schools and by the masters of the old regime, an officer of the royal army, breaking the old military concepts. It is more a war of seat by 30 to 50 000 men, but to seek a decisive battle, involving over 100,000 men if necessary. It is no longer to remain master of the battlefield, but to annihilate the enemy.

In 1808, he created the nobility of the Empire: soon his marshals and generals bearing the titles of Count of the Empire, Prince of Neuchatel, the Duke of Auerstadt, Duke of Montebello, Duke of Dantzig, Duke of Elchingen, King of Naples .

From September 27 to October 14, 1808, Napoleon go to Alexander I at Erfurt for a new treaty to unite against Austria which threatens to redeclare war on France.
The Tsar refused, preferring that the treaty should be established in order to renew the alliance that was forged between them last year at Tilsit, in fact it allows to Napoleon even longer to ensure the fidelity of Alexander. But it is a failure because the Emperor soon discovers the betrayal of Talleyrand, who had approached the Tsar by advising him to resist Napoleon, although he was seduced.

In 1810, the "Grand Empire" has 130 departments, from Amsterdam to Rome, and many vassal states and a population of 70 million inhabitants, of which only 30 are French, the Empire was at its peak.

On April 2, 1810, he married the Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, who, March 20, 1811, will give him a son, this child will be called the king of Rome and named "Napoleon II."



Following the British position vis-à-vis the French merchant vessels, Napoleon tries to impose the Continental Blockade to stifle British industry. Portugal, old ally of the British, refused to sign the treaty. Napoleon therefore seeking the help of Spain to invade Portugal. He eventually invade Spain and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king. Portugal is also flooded, but the three campaigns (1808, 1810, 1811), led notably by General Junot and Massena does not end the resistance Anglo-Portuguese, King John VI of Portugal, the court and the Portuguese government moved to Rio de Janeiro and Brazil became the seat of the kingdom until 1821. Part of the Spanish population rose against the French. Soon, the British infantry commanded by the future Duke of Wellington foothold in Spain, to Portugal, in 1808, with the help of Spanish nationalists, the French army pushed out of the Iberian Peninsula in 1812. While the best troops of the French army have committed in Spain, Austria attacked once again in Germany and France is finally defeated at the Battle of Wagram. Marshal Lannes, companion and friend of Napoleon, died at the Battle of Essling.

Alexander I, prompted by the Russian nobility gained to the British refused to cooperate with Napoleon to be the final blow in the UK. Napoleon, believing that war inevitably invaded Russia in 1812. The Grand Army, supported by the Italian allies, Germany, Austria, is enormous: they are 600 000 men who crossed the Niemen.

The Russians, led by Kutuzov, follow the strategy of scorched earth, falling incessantly before the French troops. The Battle of Borodino, September 12, is undecided. Although the Russians abandoned the field, the losses are nearly equivalent in both camps.

The day after the entry of French troops in Moscow, the Russians set fire to the town, and Napoleon to retreat. In winter, suddenly these regions, is dangerously close to Napoleon, hoping for a further act of Alexander, is delaying retirement until the last moment. The Grand Army then began a desperate retreat to Germany in the Russian winter, through the regions devastated that she had come to go. Of 600 000 men who took the field, only a few tens of thousands crossing the Berezina. The Grand Army was destroyed.

Encouraged by this dramatic failure, several kings took up arms against France. Following two victories in Germany (Lutzen and Bautzen), part of his troops betrayed him and Napoleon suffered a decisive defeat at Leipzig, also called "Battle of the Nations", which sees the French to oppose 180 000 300 000 Allied (Russian, Austrian, Prussian, Swedish). Marshal Poniatowski, Polish prince and nephew of Stanislaus II, last king of Poland, lost his life trying to cross the Elster with his men. There are 100,000 dead and wounded.



In 1814, an alliance between the United Kingdom, Russia, Prussia and Austria was formed. Despite the incredible victories in the battles of Champaubert and Montmirail, that Napoleon won at the head of an army of inexperienced young recruits (the "Marie Louise"), Paris falls on March 31 and the marshals forced Napoleon to abdicate. Napoleon's intention was to abdicate in favor of his son (Napoleon II), but the allied powers require unconditional surrender.

Napoleon believed that the allies will then be separated from the Empress and his son King of Rome, then on the night of April 12 to 13, he took a dose of poison that should enable it to commit suicide. It was long believed that it was opium in a little water, but it seems that this is not the case (see Napoleon - Great Moments of Destiny by Jean Tulard - Ch. 44 ). Disorders and the nature of the malaise of Napoleon does not correspond to poisoning by opium. He then chose to die that way, thinking that her body will then be exposed to French, in fact, that he wanted custody recognize the calm face she knew in the midst of battle. Right in the malaise, the Emperor complained of the slow effect of the substance he has swallowed. He told Armand de Caulaincourt: "Let a penalty die, which is unfortunate to have a constitution that rejects the end of a life that I long so much to see the end! ". Nausea of ​​Napoleon are becoming more violent, he began to vomit. With the arrival of Dr. Yvan, Napoleon asked a supplementary dose of poison, so he can finally die, but the doctor refused, saying he is not a murderer and he will never make something up against his conscience. The doctor himself had a nervous breakdown, fled on horseback, and no one sees more. The agony of the Emperor continues Caulaincourt leaves the room to ask the valet service and interior silence. Caulaincourt Napoleon reminds him that he would rather die than sign the treaty. The effects of the poison go away and the Emperor can resume normal activities [18].

He is subsequently stripped by the Senate on April 3 and exiled to Elba, according to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, signed April 11, retaining the title of Emperor, but no ruling on this small island.



In France, Louis XVIII aside "Napoleon II" and took power. Napoleon concerned about the fate of his wife and especially his son who is in the hands of the Austrians. The royalist government refused to pay him soon the pension promise and rumors about his deportation to a small island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Napoleon decides to return to the continent to regain power.



    1st March 1815: landed at Golfe-Juan, Napoleon and his party won Cannes where they arrive late and leave early when they.
    March 2: Wanting to avoid the path of the Rhone he knows hostile, Napoleon then take the road to Grasse to win, by the Alps, the valley of the Durance. In addition to Grasse, the column is committed in bad mule tracks and stops at Saint-Vallier, Escragnolles and Séranon.
    March 3: After a night's rest, she won Castellane, in the afternoon, reaching Barrême.
    March 4: Napoleon is in the carriage road worthy and made stops at night in the castle of Malijai, anxiously awaiting news that the citadel of Sisteron, commanding the narrow passage of the Durance, can block his path.
    March 5: Sisteron is not guarded and Napoleon lunch, then left the town in an atmosphere of sympathy emerging. In the evening he arrived at Gap and receives an enthusiastic welcome.
    March 6: This layer Corps.
    March 7: He won the Mure, then in front of him, Laffrey, troops sent to Grenoble. Here is the famous episode that commemorated today in the "meadow of the meeting," a monument. That evening, Napoleon entered in Grenoble with shouts of "Vive l'Empereur".

The armies sent to stop the hero's welcome everywhere on his journey, the road that now bears his name. Marshal Ney, who had vowed to bring back Louis XVIII of Bonaparte in an iron cage, bowed to his former sovereign, which she will be the only marshal executed for treason during the Second Restoration. Napoleon arrived in Paris without firing a shot. This rise in Paris is known as the "Flight of the Eagle," inspired by the words of Napoleon: "The eagle will fly from steeple to tower to the towers of Notre Dame." In 1932 Napoleon Road will be opened between Golfe-Juan and Grenoble. Eagles flying mark this route.



The flight of Louis XVIII and the return of Napoleon at the Tuileries March 20, 1815 marked the beginning of the period known as the Hundred Days. Napoleon established the Additional Act to the Constitutions of the Empire (April 22), also known as the Charter of 1815. House of Representatives is elected.

Internationally, Napoleon says his wishes peaceful as he had no choice, but the allies did not accept the return and resume hostilities against France. The army was finally defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo June 18, 1815. The junction of the British and Prussian armies, that can prevent Marshal Grouchy, was due to the imperial troops.

The return of Napoleon and his final defeat worsening international situation of France. It is treated even more harshly treated than in Vienna. Napoleon left France in effect a bloodless. Demographically, France has lost about 1.7 million people since 1792, mostly during the Napoleonic Wars. Economically, it is ruined. Its ports and arsenals are too. The country has also lost all the colonies that remained of the old regime. Its international influence, in place since Richelieu and Louis XIV, is reduced to nothing. It is smaller than territorially under Louis XVI. Even the Saar and the cities of Marienburg, Philippeville and Landau, acquired under Louis XIV, are sold in the coalition. He is also busy, and must also pay a heavy war indemnity for the maintenance of foreign troops on its territory.

When Napoleon left France, it is not missed. It was at St. Helena that will forge his legend.

Seeking asylum in "most consistent of his enemies," England, it is first supported by the Bellerophon, and transferred on August 7, 1815 Northumberland who will table at St. Helena.

It does not one foot in England, British officers trying to avoid critical that Napoleon could claim asylum on the grounds of Habeas Corpus.

The captain, the friendly, called "Bonaparte", which will Napoleon out of it.

The English still call and they have never recognized the Empire.



Napoleon was imprisoned and deported by the British on the island of St. Helena, commanded first by Admiral Cockburn and Sir Hudson Lowe, with a small band of followers, including the Count de Las Cases, General Montholon and General Gourgaud. He devoted himself to writing his memoirs for posterity that he dictated to Las Cases.

It also tries to learn English and receives many visitors passing through St. Helena, which is then an important stopover for all ships around Africa. Once installed at Longwood, he avoids going out because Lowe ordered that the emperor should be everywhere in custody.

Gradually, Napoleon became ill and weakened. He asked in his will to General Baron de Marbot to continue working in his writings "for the greatness of France." In the second half of April 1821 he wrote his last will and codicils number itself, about forty pages in total. His last words were: "France, army, Josephine," or, as the memories of St. Helena, "Army head ... ... My God! ". Nerval, in his poem on the death of the Exile, noted: "The last words of Napoleon were dying," My God and the French nation ... my son ... ... French army head. " It is not known what these words meant. "And a current version says he would have said in effect," head of the army, "which is much less enigmatic.

Napoleon died a Saturday, May 5, 1821, "at 17 hours and 49 minutes," making it "the most powerful breath of life that was never shaken the human clay" (Chateaubriand). However, the causes of death have been controversial, doctors have formally concluded that a death from cancer of the stomach, but it was speculated an arsenic poisoning.

Hudson Lowe, Napoleon's jailer in St. Helena, to his deathbed, said:

    "Gentlemen, it was the greatest enemy of England was also mine. But I forgive him everything. On the death of a great man, one must feel that sadness and deep regret. "



Napoleon asked to be buried on the banks of the Seine, with the French people that he so loved, but when he died in 1821 he was buried at St. Helena.

Nineteen years after Napoleon's death, King Louis-Philippe I was able to get the UK the return of the ashes of Napoleon. The exhumation took place October 15, 1840. His body was returned triumphantly to Paris and buried in the Invalides, in "a large sarcophagus of red porphyry (...) - in fact aventurine quartzite of Finland, near the porphyry - placed on a pedestal of green granite from the Vosges' [ 19], [20]. The black marble base comes from the marble quarry of Sainte-Luce (Isère). Transportation of this block of 5.5 meters long, 1.20 meter wide and 0.65 meters thick, was not done without difficulty [21].

From 1854, the Emperor Napoleon III with the British government negotiated the purchase of Longwood House and the Tomb Valley (St. Helena), who became French in 1858 and properties are managed from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.



The official cause of death was stomach cancer, and while the Emperor showed some overweight at the time of his death (75.5 kg 1.67 m, described as "overweight" and could pose risks significant medical), some researchers found the pants he took in that time and found that over the last 5 months before his death, he had lost nearly 11 kg.

In 1955, the journal of Louis Marchand, Napoleon's valet, was published. It describes the last months of Napoleon until his death and concluded that in many suffered a long-term poisoning with arsenic, which would have weakened enough for medical treatment at the time the can to complete [22].

Pascal Kintz, of the Legal Institute in Strasbourg in 2001 made a study of the level of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair after his death, from 7 to 38 times the normal level, but it does not conclude that this is the result poisoning [23] analyzes the magazine Science & life show that similar concentrations of arsenic can be found in samples taken in 1805, 1814 and 1821.

French studies have shown that daily Napoleon plunged her hair in baths of arsenic because the popular belief that arsenic extends the life and luster of the hair, which would explain the abnormally high level of arsenic found in his hair.

An analysis of strands of hair from various sources used to reconstruct a detailed histogram of the content of arsenic in Napoleon's body. The concentration is usually low and sometimes a very high concentration appears, indicating that a high dose of arsenic had been absorbed. However, having studied the hair was collected without the bulb, it is impossible to say with certainty whether the real hair of Napoleon [24].

However, the theory of poisoning is difficult due to a clinicopathological study January 12, 2007 conducted by Swiss researchers, the U.S. and Canada at the University of Basel and published in the journal Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology and Hepatology, according which the emperor was carried off by an advanced gastric cancer with lymph node involvement [25]. Work with the participation of Swiss researchers, the U.S. and Canada, based on reports from doctors present at St. Helena, indicate that his cancer would have occurred against a background of chronic inflammation of the stomach caused by a microorganism, and not on the bottom of familial predisposition, according to contemporary descriptions, the lining of the stomach showed a lesion of about ten centimeters.

Even if a return from exile, the state of cancer would have prevented Napoleon influence again on the European political life.



Late 1799, the state of France is catastrophic. Anarchy reigns administrative, taxes do not reach the state coffers, robbery developed, roads are potholed, the border regions devastated because of the war, trade is at its worst, the industry (including that of the Lyon silk) in ruins, unemployment is a breakthrough, the price of bread is too high for the workers, hospitals do not work ... It's time that Bonaparte, who at the time still a revolutionary general, chose to abandon his army in Egypt and go to Paris, fomenting a coup, November 10, 1799. Surrounded by a halo of prestige (it comes out the winner of the Italian campaign and the campaign of Egypt, for now, still a success), he finds little resistance and public opinion do disavow it. But Republicans are worried. Did Napoleon allowed the Revolution to settle in time, where he destroys the contrary, the revolutionary heritage? It solidifies the legacy of the revolution ended with Napoleon in the republic and stop the revolutionary movement but not the Revolution, the Consulate will be the three parties.

The Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, with a series of measures, allowing the Revolution to settle in time. First, Bonaparte created new institutions that have survived until today. The new constitution is written that it strengthens the executive at the expense of the legislative branch, creates a centralized, organized in departments and ministries (including the new Interior Ministry, told Fouche) specialized and standardized. It keeps the administrative divisions created during the Revolution. These institutions provide a strong reinforcement of the authority of the state, revive the country and away a bit more risk back to the old regime. The state coffers are replenished.

Next, Napoleon Bonaparte is in line with the Revolution. After the coup, institutions change, but the majority of people who will occupy positions were already in place at the Board: in the assemblies created by the Constitution of Year X, most senators, tribunes or members Council of State had positions of responsibility under the previous regime, the prefects are chosen from the revolutionary assemblies ... This allows better control Napoleon opposition. The reforms are put in place are a logical extension of those already undertaken during the Revolution. Financial and trade reforms that were assigned to some of them were designed by members of the Executive.
They had already tried the Continental System that Napoleon will implement against the United Kingdom in 1806. Even some warfare techniques used by Napoleon and he is considered the inventor had already been implemented during the Revolution. Writing a French Civil Code itself had already been undertaken during the Revolution. In addition, it stabilizes the political landscape in pacifying the country and ensures enrollment in the term of his government. The peace signed with the royalist Vendée, in December 1799, marks an important step forward in easing the country, no government had previously managed to get it.

The signing of the Concordat in 1801 allows Napoleon to secure the support of many Catholics who were previously hesitant, and the royalists are losing as much, one of the fundamental reasons for the support of the people in this movement is the anti-Catholic Revolution. The Concordat, which does not establish Catholicism as the dominant religion, and that could be seen as a desire to return to the old regime, Bonaparte allows for a new legitimacy and to establish a little more authority. The Concordat maintains the sale of national property. Thanks to these treaties, Bonaparte and the royalist opposition neutralizes seems to fit into the revolutionary heritage.

Finally, the French Civil Code is a groundbreaking book. Began in 1800 and finally published in 1804, it replaces all earlier right, and keeps meritocracy, equal tax, conscription, freedom of enterprise and competition and work devoted to the disappearance of the feudal aristocracy and in principle of equality before the law. Maintaining and entering in the code all the achievements of the Revolution, Bonaparte allowed them to cross the schemes and reassured many of the people.

But Napoleon has also removed many of the revolutionary gains. First, the revolutionary cults are abolished. Freedom of expression, assembly, movement and release are abolished in favor of an authoritarian state and monitoring of the population increased very orchestrated by Fouche. The equality proclaimed in the Civil Code is not respected: the woman depends on her husband, the owners have great power over the workers, reducing the worker the book to be quasi-serfs; slavery is restored colonies, officials are privileged in terms of Justice ... Then, the introduction of the prefects, who are the equivalent of stewards, the creation of the State Council, the equivalent of the king's council, a new nobility based on notability, sham plebiscite (vote are invented, there is no secret vote, it ratifies a fact already done ...) have to fear the worst Jacobins. The specter of a return to monarchy haunts them.

Finally, becoming in turn the first consul, consul for life and then emperor, he finishes with the Republic. Public favor allows him to write the Constitution of Year VIII, which gives the real powers, and especially no mention of national sovereignty. The Constitution divides the legislative power, which from that moment on, will lose its influence. It was during the year that X has occurred processing system even in a Republican despotism which was missing a crown. The position of first consul for life the death knell of the Republic. These dietary changes can be especially to Napoleon less dependent on its success or failure and give a new dimension vis-à-vis other European leaders. Napoleon has also removed many of revolutionary gains.

Napoleon stops the revolutionary movement but not the Revolution. By obtaining the trust of citizens (through the sale of national assets at sea and continental peace, the creation of a meritocratic aristocracy ...) thanks to the prestige of big wins (Marengo 1800), good resolution of crises such as that of 1802 (famine and unemployment), Napoleon gets popular support and gradually frees itself of the revolutionary process, that it is no longer necessary. Over the years, while its popularity will only continue to grow, it will ramp up and away from the Republic. In 1804, after various plots to his assassination and the resumption of hostilities with the United Kingdom, it is seen as the only bulwark against the enemies of the Revolution, and the question of inheritance becomes a concern. He took the opportunity to be crowned Emperor (or rather, to anoint). Which could be seen as the culmination of the project of a tyrant is not. Indeed, during the coronation, Napoleon said to be a continuation of the revolution, and is supported by the revolutionaries themselves, despite the end of the revolutionary process.

Imperial wars perpetuated the Revolution. In every country conquered, Napoleon imposed the Civil Code and therefore all revolutionary concepts in it. It is considered initially as the liberator of Europe. But from the Fourth Coalition, which began in 1806, the purpose of these wars will no longer be the spread of revolutionary ideas. Despite the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the ideas of freedom and equality will remain firmly implanted in the countries that were conquered and many changes over the nineteenth century will bring.
With the modernization of French and European institutions, to the pacification of the country, its military victories and the conquest of most of Europe, Napoleon led the expansion and perpetuation of the Revolution. Thus, despite the many changes of regime in the nineteenth century, the French Civil Code shall remain in force throughout Europe, and the many revolutionary principles it contains. Napoleon is more than the continuation of the revolution the murderer, despite the impasse he made on the Republic. By removing the revolutionary cults and other revolutionary gains that endangered the work of the revolution itself, he allowed others to cross the ages.



Napoleon is not slavery as evidenced in his youth, and at least until 1789, his passion for the works of Abbé Raynal. However, the first abolition of slavery in the colonies in 1794 and its economic and political consequences harmful lead the First Consul to address the problem. Upon taking office, the three Consuls to ensure that former slaves their freedom was granted by the Convention will be respected. This is the case until 1802. For the signing of the Treaty of Amiens March 25, 1802, Britain must go to France the occupied islands. Among these are especially St. Lucia and Martinique, which have not benefited from the law on the abolition of slavery. Faced with this confusion, the powers that be decided the status quo: the islands where there is more slavery will remain free, for against those occupied until then by England will retain the existing laws. A commission of three counselors and Cambaceres State Dupuis, Regnault de St. Jean d'Angely and Admiral Bruix working on a project that was in the desired direction by Bonaparte. But it is difficult to live two opposing principles in the same bill. It was decided to name just recovered the territories at the Treaty of Amiens, and not to mention the colonies where slavery was already abolished. In the maintenance of slavery in Martinique, the First Consul is driven in particular by his ministers (Describe the admiral, Talleyrand ...) and the Quartermaster General of the colonies Vaivre Guillemin, a native of Santo Domingo, but also by its wife Josephine, originally from Martinique and whose family and friends had many interests in Martinique ... "Slavery and the slave trade and imported into the colonies restored by the Treaty of Amiens will be held in accordance with laws and regulations prior to 1789."

In early June, he arrest and deport Toussaint Louverture, who had been leading the slave revolt in Santo Domingo eleven years earlier and who had kept the colony to France. The West Indians had to die - cold - a year later at Fort Joux in Doubs, department known for its rigorous winters. A second phase of the war in Santo Domingo begins, it causes many massacres on both sides. These are the rebels in Santo Domingo emerging victorious from these terrible fights and create, in January 1804, the first independent black republic in Haiti.

The rebels also Guadeloupe in 1802 but the rebellion led by Louis Delgrès fails and ends with the mass suicide of the insurgents. With thousands of miles of France, General Richepance and his staff have restored order with a lot of brutality. They will gradually reimpose the old Code and black slavery.

Note that in the French armies, it was the generals and soldiers, black and mixed race (mulatto). The struggle between the rebels and the consular power has not always been racial in the sense that we understand today but social relations between owners and owned.

Back from Elba in 1815, Napoleon decreed the abolition of the slave trade, which aligns the France of the decision just taken by the Congress of Vienna. His decision was confirmed by the Treaty of Paris November 20, 1815. However, at the Restoration, it is often ignored.





The Consulate is essentially a period of stabilization and pacification of France after the revolutionary decade. Many institutions are based, which survive well in their creator, they incorporate some of the gains of the Revolution and still exist today.

Thus on 13 December (22 Frimaire VIII) in 1799, the Constitution of Year VIII written by Bonaparte, in Article 52 creates the State Council. This body is initially responsible for drafting laws to unload departments and to advise the government on legislation to be undertaken. In this constitution, Napoleon Bonaparte also creates the Senate, inspired by the Roman Senate, he is responsible for ensuring compliance with the Constitution and its members are appointed by the First Consul, then Emperor. In 1800, the First Consul Bonaparte creates two important institutions, still existing on the one hand, February 13 (24 Pluviôse VIII), it establishes the Bank of France on the other hand, February 17 (Law of 28 Pluviose Year VIII) Bonaparte created the prefectures headed by prefects appointed by an emperor and the state official. All these institutions can reorganize the administration in France, which did not work since the beginning of the Revolution in 1789. This reorganization allows to restore order and revive the economy. But the order will be completely reduced within 15 July 1801, when Napoleon Bonaparte signed with Pope Pius VII reconciling the Concordat with the Church of France, while maintaining the freedom of worship established by the Declaration of Human Rights and of 1789. Bonaparte wants to reorganize the French firm in many areas:

    Education: he launched a major reform that led the 1st May 1802 (11 Floreal, Year X) to create high schools, the military school Saint-Cyr, the proliferation of primary schools, the creation of the Ministry of Education .
    Economy: December 24, 1802, he introduced the 22 Chambers of Commerce and established a new currency, the franc Germinal April 7, 1803 (17 Germinal Year XI).
    Justice and Law: Bonaparte will transform the French judicial system, it establishes the Courts of Appeal and the Court of Cassation is the Supreme Court. He reorganized the law school with the creation of law schools and degrees accessible to all, the right capacity. Finally, March 21, 1804 (30 Ventose Year XII), Napoleon Bonaparte enacts the French Civil Code, which defines new rights and obligations for the French.

Napoleon Bonaparte also introduces the Legion of Honor, awarded to deserving people and having done a good deed.

The period of the Consulate is considered the most beneficial time and prolific reign of Napoleon. Indeed, during this period, while Bonaparte reorganized and laid the foundations of modern France, and almost all of the achievements of Bonaparte still exist today despite successive reforms. During this period, France saw its economy revitalized, reorganized its administration, a more efficient justice, education developed and the return of peace both within and outside. But all these transformations are only way to reach the top step, that of the Empire.



    In 1806, Emperor Napoleon I control the Arc de Triomphe.
        March 18 (21 germinal an IX), the first industrial tribunal was created in Lyon.
        May 10, the University is recreated after it was abolished by the Revolution, in a form that leads to the current universities.
    In 1807, Napoleon Alexandre Théodore Brongniart entrusts the construction of the future Paris Bourse.
        February 9, it is raised according to the Grand Sanhedrin (which facilitates the assimilation of Jews in the Empire). Napoleon continued the work of tolerance towards the Jews begun by the Revolution.
        September 16, Napoleon created the Court of Auditors.
    1808:
        March 17, Napoleon created by decree the baccalaureate.
    1810:
        February 12, the Penal Code was promulgated.



Bonaparte operates from the beginning of the Consulate of many reforms in education, justice, finance and administrative system.

Whole of civil law, written by Cambaceres and known as the Napoleonic Code of 1804, still has a strong influence in many countries today.

The French Civil Code, however, is largely inspired by a range of different laws and customs existing in the Old Regime that unified. Administrative his work lasted until 1814. Among other reforms, it will begin the work of cadastral French territory.





    The erection of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel (1808)
    Construction of the Vendome column (1805-1810)
    The Arc de Triomphe (1806)
    The construction of the Palais Brongniart (Paris Stock Exchange) (1807-1825)
    The Church of the Madeleine (completed 1842)
    The breakthrough in the streets of Rivoli, the Pyramids and Castiglione
    The new facade of the Palais Bourbon (begun in 1808)
    The connection between the Louvre and the Tuileries Palace, the finish of the courtyard of the Louvre (construction of the west wing and south), it then becomes a museum.
    The numbering of lanes in the capital
    The construction of three bridges: the Pont des Arts (1803), Austerlitz and Jena
    The Ourcq Canal, St. Martin and Saint-Denis
    The construction of dozens of fountains, like the elephant of the Bastille
    The layout of the cemetery of Pere-Lachaise
    The development of many green spaces, such as the Jardin des Plantes or the beautification of the Luxembourg Gardens.



    The foundation of Napoleon-Vendee (the present city of La Roche-sur-Yon)
    The transformation of the Place Bellecour in Lyon
    The stone bridge at Bordeaux
    The construction of the Peace Square in Milan.
    The construction of Fort Napoleon at La Seyne-sur-Mer.



    "Napoleon himself was using newspapers to make war on his enemies, especially the English. He personally wrote all the notes that are inserted into the monitor in response to assertions that diatribes or published in English newspapers. When he issued a note, he thought he had convinced. We remember that most of the notes were not models of decency, nor examples of good literature, but nowhere does it better printed the stamp of his character and his kind of talent. "
        - Jean-Antoine Chaptal



    The little corporal;
    Father Violet: Violet is the flower of love hidden. After his first abdication, it was believed he would return to the time when the violets bloom, something that came true, the violet became a rallying point of Bonaparte after the Second Restoration;
    The tyrant, the ogre is routinely given nicknames by his opponents and cartoonists.



Napoleon Bonaparte has maintained an extensive correspondence, partly for private use, but also an important official correspondence. During his lifetime, some of these letters were published, either singly or in collections, but often for the purpose of exaltation or otherwise controversial.

In the 1850s, the Emperor Napoleon III shall publish the correspondence of his uncle. If this new publication also for propaganda purposes, it will be more serious than had been done before. However, some letters have not been found, others were deliberately omitted, and the text has sometimes been redacted under various pretexts. Published in 1869 when the last volume of the correspondence of Napoleon I, Louis Rossel officer shows that the strategy books attributed to him by the commission to publish the correspondence, are not and can not be him.

In the following years, new letters were published, often in the form of specific collections (letters of Napoleon to the same party). Other reappeared occasionally.

The Fondation Napoléon has undertaken in recent years a vast enterprise of scientific publication of all correspondence of the emperor. It has launched a call for it to retrieve documents that may be found in various archives and libraries, especially in private homes.